The Proto-Borean Language

I. Phylogeny & Geographical Distribution

I.a. Sound Changes

<p> /p/

<ph> /ɸ/, /f/_[j]

<b> /b/

<bh> /β/, /v/_[j]

<m> /m/

<mh> /w/

<t> /t/

<th> /θ/

<d> /d/

<dh> /ð/

<n> /n/

<nh> or <nhr> /ɹ/

<s> /s/

<sh> /ʃ/

<z> /z/

<zh> /ʒ/

<l> /l/

<lh> /l^ɣ/ or /j/

<c> /k/ or /c/

<ch> /kx/, /x/, /cç/ or /tʃ/

<g> /g/ or /ɟ/

<gh> /gɣ/, /ɣ/, /ɟʝ/ or /dʒ/

<ŋ> /ŋ/, /ɲ^j/[l]_V

<ŋh> /ɰ/ or /j/

<q> /ʔ/

<qh> /h/

<’> /./

<r> _V or <nhr> /ɹ/

<r> V_V or <lhr> /r/

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II. Phonology & Orthography

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II.a. Phoneme Inventory

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II.a-1.) Consoneme Inventory

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II.a-1A.) Labial Group

Voiceless Bilabial Plosive

<p> /p/

Voiceless Bilabial Fricative

<ph> /ɸ/, /f/_[j]

Voiced Bilabial Plosive

<b> /b/

Voiced Bilabial Fricative

<bh> /β/, /v/_[j]

Bilabial Nasal

<m> /m/

Bilabial Approximant

<mh> /w/

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II.a-1B.) Coronal Group

Voiceless Denti-alveolar Plosive

<t> /t/

Voiceless Denti-alveolar Fricative

<th> /θ/

Voiced Denti-alveolar Plosive

<d> /d/

Voiced Denti-alveolar Fricative

<dh> /ð/

Denti-alveolar Nasal

<n> /n/

Alveolar Approximant

<nh> or <nhr> /ɹ/

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II.a-1C.) Liquid Coronal Group

Voiceless Alveolar Sibilant Fricative

<s> /s/

Voiceless Palato-alveolar Sibilant Fricative

<sh> /ʃ/_[h] or <sh> /ʃ/

Voiced Alveolar Sibilant Fricative

<z> /z/

Voiced Palato-alveolar Sibilant Fricative

<zh> /ʒ/_[h] or <zh> /ʒ/

Voiced Denti-alveolar, Alveolar, or Post-alveolar Lateral Approximant

<l> /l/

Velaraized Voiced Denti-alveolar, Alveolar, or Post-alveolar Lateral Approximant

<lh> /l^ɣ/ or /j/ or /ɾ/

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II.a-1D.) Dorsal Group

Voiceless Palatal or Velar Plosive

<c> /k/ or /c/

Voiceless Palatal or Velar Affricate or Fricative

<ch> /kx/, /x/, /cç/ or /tʃ/

Voiced Palatal or Velar Plosive

<g> /g/ or /ɟ/

Voiced Palatal or Velar Affricate or Fricative

<gh> /gɣ/, /ɣ/, /ɟʝ/ or /dʒ/

Velar or Palatized Palatal Nasal

<ŋ> /ŋ/, /ɲ^j/[l]_V

Palatalized Palatal Nasal or Velarized Palatal Approximant

<ŋh> /ɰ/ or /jɟ/

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II.a-1E.) Glottal Group

<q> /ʔ/

<qh> /h/

<’> /./

<r> /r/_V, /ɹ/C_V, or /r/V_V

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II.a-2.) Volonome Inventory

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II.a-2A.) Monophthongs

Open Front Vowel

<a> /a/

Mid/Front-Mid Front Vowel

<e> /ɛ/

Close/Close-Mid Front Vowel

<i> /ɪ/

Close/Close-Mid Back Vowel

<u> /ʊ/

Open-Mid Back Vowel

<o> /ɔ/

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II.a-2B.) Diphthongs

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II.a-2Bα.) “A”-Diphthongs

Long

<aa> /a:/ or //

Closing

<ae> /aɛ/ or /æ/

Closing

<ai> /aɪ/ or //

Closing

<au> /aʊ/(C)_C or /œ:/C_

Closing

<ao> /æʊ/_C, /aɔ/C_ or /œ/C_C

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II.a-2Bη.) “E”-Diphthongs

Opening

<ea> /ɛa/ or //

Long

<ee> /ɛ:/ or /e/

Closing

<ei> /ɛɪ/ or /ɛ/

Closing

<eu> /ɛʊ/(C)_C or /œ/C_

Height-Harmonic

<eo> /eʊ/_C, /ɛɔ/C_, or /ø/C_C

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II.a-2Bι.) “I”-Diphthongs

Opening

<ia> /ɪa/ or //

Opening

<ie> /ɪɛ/ or /i/

Long

<ii> /ɪ:/(C)_C or /i:/C_

Height-Harmonic

<iu> /ɪʊ/_C, /ʏ/C_C, /y/C_

Opening

<io> /iʊ/_C, /ɪɔ/C_, or /y/C_C

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II.a-2Bυ.) “U”-Diphthongs

Opening

<ua> /ʊa/ or //

Opening

<ue> /ʊɛ/ or //

Height-Harmonic

<ui> /ʊɪ/ or //

Long

<uu> /u/(C)_C or /u:/C_

Opening

<uo> /uʊ/_C, /ʊɔ/C_C or /ʊo/C_

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II.a-2Bω.) “O”-Diphthongs

Opening

<oa> /ɔa/ or //

Height-Harmonic

<œ> /ɔɛ/ or /œ/

Closing

<oi> /ɔɪ/ or //

Closing

<ou> /ɔʊ/ or //

Long

<oo> /ɔ:/ or /oʊ/

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II.b. Phonotactic Summary

<p> /p/

<ph> /ɸ/, /f/_[j]

<b> /b/

<bh> /β/, /v/_[j]

<m> /m/

<mh> /w/

<t> /t/

<th> /θ/

<d> /d/

<dh> /ð/

<n> /n/

<nh> or <nhr> /ɹ/

<s> /s/

<sh> /ʃ/

<z> /z/

<zh> /ʒ/

<l> /l/

<lh> /l^ɣ/ or /j/

<c> /k/ or /c/

<ch> /kx/, /x/, /cç/ or /tʃ/

<g> /g/ or /ɟ/

<gh> /gɣ/, /ɣ/, /ɟʝ/ or /dʒ/

<ŋ> /ŋ/, /ɲ^j/[l]_V

<ŋh> /ɰ/ or /j/

<q> /ʔ/

<qh> /h/

<’> /./

<r> /r/_V, /ɹ/C_V, or /r/V_V

When a consonant bridges two syllables (i.e. when positioned between two vowels), it is pronounced as being the onset of the next syllable. However, when a consonant cluster sits at the bridge of two syllables, the phonotactics are a bit more complicated:

When a consonant cluster begins with a plosive consonant, and the next consonant is neither an approximant, a lateral, nor a semi-vowel, there follows a very slight schwa [ ? ] preceeding that next consonant, unless the consonant cluster is itself preceeded by a vowel [even if said vowel appears at the end of the previous word], in which case the plosive is re-analyzed as the final consonant on the coda of the preceeding syllable. When a consonant cluster begins with a nasal consonant, however, said consonant is syllablized unless the nasal consonant is preceeded by another vowel [again, even if said vowel appears at the end of the preceeding word], which causes the nasal consonant to be pronounced as the final consonant of the previous syllable’s coda. When preceeding a liquid consonant or semi-vowel, the plosive digraphs ph, bh, th, and dh (/ ph, bh, th, dh /) are modified into fricative consonants (/ f, ß, ?, ð /) , whilst the fricative digraph sh (/ sj /) is modified into an affricative consonant (/ ? /); these digraphs may not be followed by any other type of consonant, except when bridging two syllables or at a syllable’s coda preceeding the nasal consonant n. When preceeding a liquid consonant or semi-vowel, or when following any other type of consonant, the plosive palatal digraphs ch and gh (/ ch, ?h /) become fricative consonants (/ ç, ? /). The digraph lh (/ l?? /) becomes a semi-vowel (/ j /) when preceeded by any type of consonant, but cannot itself preceed a consonant. When following any type of consonant, the aspirated nasal digraph mh becomes a semi-vowel (/ w /), but when preceeding the liquid consonant r or the digraph rh, merely rounds the following consonant; the digraph mh may not preceed any other consonant with the exception of the digraph lh, with the pronunciation of mhlh being uncertain (though the most likely pronunciation is simply / w / followed by / j / with a slight schwa buffering the two). The digraph nh may not be preceeded by any type of cons0nant at the coda, though otherwise its pronunciation remains largely unchanged from that given on the chart to the left, except when modified to / ? / preceeding any consonant, in any position (onset, bridge, or coda).

The standard formula for consonant clusters in the Proto-Borean language, therefore, is:

[Formula]

No consonant cluster may contain more than three distinct consonantal phonemes, allowing a maximum of six characters [if each phoneme is a digraph].

Vowels

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III. Morphology

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III.a. Root Construction

Paragraph

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III.a-1.) Consonantal (C-Type) Roots

The simplest roots are those made up of a single morphoneme. Most often this is a consonantal monograph or digraph, although consonant clusters are lexically more numerous (though when consonant clusters are used as roots, the nucleic morphoneme is considered able to be broken down into smaller morphonemes; these consonant clusters may thus be thought of as “semi-archmorphemes”).

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III.a-1A.) Uniconsonantal (C₁-Type) Roots

Uniconsonantal roots are made up of a single consonantal monograph or digraph. Examples include *m-, a reflexive morphoneme with the morphonetic meaning, “ ”, in the first-person pronoun mille, and *n-, a pseudo-demonstrative or -articular morphoneme with the morphonetic meaning, “to be” [generally distal, definite, or unequivocal, as opposed to *l-, which is typically proximal, indefinite, or remotive], in the third-person pronoun nille or the [pro-]verb nelene-.

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III.a-1B.) Biconsonantal (C₂-Type) Roots

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III.a-1C.) Triconsonantal C₃-Type) Roots

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III.a-1D.) Quadruconsonantal (C₄-Type) Roots

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III.a-2.) Syllabic (S-Type) Roots

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III.a-2A.) Monosyllabic (S₁-Type) Roots

Monosyllabic roots. Examples include *mpad-, in the nouns mpaderillu, “brother”, mpadurellu, “father”, mpadurella, “mother”, mpadorellu, “begetter, sire”, mpadorella, “matrix”, et cetera, the verb mpaderene-, “to parent”, or the adjective mpaduralini-, “parental”, *mpad-’s relative, *mpodh-, in the nouns Mpodherillu, “Father (God)”, and Mpodherilla, “Mother (Goddess)”, and *rid-, in the phrase ninna ridutaenemillu, “I recently exiled her”.

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III.a-2B.) Disyllabic (S₂-Type) Roots

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III.a-2C.) Trisyllabic (S₃-Type) Roots

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III.a-2D.) Tetrasyllabic (S₄-Type) Roots

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III.a-2E.) Pentasyllabic (S₅-Type) Roots

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III.a-3.) Consonantal Versus Syllabic Roots

Monosyllabic roots, containing at least three morphonemes each, could be root-inflected by ablaut (changing the monophthong or diphthong that sat fixed between the root’s consonants or consonant clusters). Later, these inflected forms became derivations, not unlike the process that rendered the frequentative aspectual inflection of “drip”, dribble, or “chat”, chatter, a derivational rather than inflectional form in the history of the English language.

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III.a-3.) Polytypical (P-Type) Roots

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III.a-4.) Root Variations

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III.b. Variational Paradigms

Those who spoke the earliest attested forms of the Proto-Borean tongue, and probably those who spoke some of the later pre-attested forms, considered the substitution of any morphoneme, even the nucleic morphoneme or semi-archmorpheme of a monoconsonantal root, to be but a mere derivation of whatever lexeme said morphoneme was contained in. Educated speakers of the earliest attested forms of the language almost unanimously considered the language’s lexicon in its entirety to be simply a massive derivational paradigm of a single word, in the same way that many thousands of word forms in a polysynthetic language are considered part of the inflectional paradigm.

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III.b-1.) Root Variations

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III.b-1A.) Parenthetical Suppletion: Onset & Coda

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III.b-1B.) Nuclear Suppletion

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III.b-1C.) Primary Root Derivation: Class

The verb class system of the Proto-Borean language is a system of derivation by which the root’s nucleus is altered to create a new word. This system itself derived from a form of voice inflection present in earlier forms of the language.

When used in the form of a verb, these forms take on the following meanings:

Passive class —

<anerenemille> / anɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I become”

Intransitive class —

<enerenemille> / ɛnɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I am”

Descriptive class —

<inerenemille> / ɪnɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I match”

Transitive class —

<unerenemille> / ʊnɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I influence”

Causative class —

<onerenemille> / ɔnɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I create”

When used in the form of a verb, these forms take on the following meanings:

Passive class —

<aderenemille> / adɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I complete”

Intransitive class —

<ederenemille> / ɛdɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I do”

Descriptive class —

<iderenemille> / ɪdɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I simulate”

Transitive class —

<uderenemille> / ʊdɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I direct”

Causative class —

<oderenemille> / ɔdɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I cause”

When used in the form of a verb, these forms take on the following meanings:

Passive class —

<aterenemille> / atɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I rest”

Intransitive class —

<eterenemille> / ɛtɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I finish”

Descriptive class —

<iterenemille> / ɪtɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I end”

Transitive class —

<uterenemille> / ʊtɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I guide”

Causative class —

<oterenemille> / ɔtɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I motivate”

In the example below, the consonantal root *r-d- has the morphonetic meaning of r, “to come into”, “to become”, or “to move toward” in relationship to the following morphoneme, d, which signifies the primordial abyss of infinite wisdom that was believed to be the initial source of all existence and potentiality [and was therefore the container of all knowledge, whether actual, theoretical, or hypothetical] (cf. the “abyss” of occult philosophy; the Akasha of Eastern mysticism), and takes on various derivative, related meanings, such as “a beginning or primordial state”, “a wild, feral, untamed, chaotic, or natural state”, “a state of pre-formation”, “a state of increased wisdom and understanding”, or, simply, “darkness” or “abyss”. The intransitive basal form, *red-, via semantic shift, developed the meaning of “to return to the source or initial state; to tap into the primordial abyss of infinite knowledge”, hence, “to become feral or wild; to be wild, deviant, or radical; to egregate” and “to learn; to gain wisdom and understanding; to evolve”. The descriptive form, *rid-, took the meaning of “to be going toward the darkness or initial, wild, or feral state; to be going toward the spiritual source”; hence, “to travel through the wild; to seek wisdom or enlightenment; to wander, travel, or pilgrim; to be away from society”. The transitive form, *rud-, gained the meaning of “to put out toward the darkness; to cause to go outward into the [surrounding] dark and/or cold; to return to an initial state of unbeing”, hence, “to make pervade the darkness or cold; to return to ashes”, and therefore, “to set aflame or alight; to fire or burn; to heat or cook; to redden [or ‘to blacken [with heat or flame]’, which brings us back to the concept of returning to darkness]”. The passive form, *rad-, acquired the meaning of “to be put out toward or into the primordial darkness, cold, or chaos; to have tapped into the abyss of infinite knowledge”; variously interpreted as, “to be caused to pervade the [surrounding] darkness”, “to have been placed away in the wild; apart from the group or society”, or “to have found [possibly innate] knowledge”; hence, “to shine; to be bright [with the metaphorical meaning, ‘to be intelligent’] or radiating [with the metaphorical meaning, ‘to be splendorous or beautiful’]; to stand out or apart [also with the metaphorical meaning of being unusually intelligent and/or beautiful]; to be radical [with connotations of both radical intellect or cunning and radical beauty]; to be radiant, splendorous, or beautiful; to be radically clever or knowledgeable; to be wild, or to be wildly brilliant or radiant [whether referring to intelligence, literal ‘brightness’, or beauty]; et cetera”. Finally, the causative form, *rod-, developed the meaning of “to cause to become unformed”, hence, “to erode away or gnaw at; to fight; to assay to disperse”.

When used in the form of a verb, these forms take on the following meanings:

Passive class —

raderenemille / ɹadɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I shine/radiate; I standout”

Intransitive class —

rederenemille / ɹɛdɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I learn; I evolve; I egregate; I set myself apart; antigregate”

Descriptive class —

riderenemille / ɹɪdɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I travel; I wander; I pilgrim”

Transitive class —

ruderenemille / ɹʊdɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I heat; I redden [or blacken]”

Causative class —

roderenemille / ɹɔdɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I erode away; I eat/gnaw at; I fight against”

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III.b-1D.) Secondary Root Derivation: Intensity

When used in the form of a verb, these forms take on the following meanings:

Moderative —

aderenemille / adɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I complete”

Approximative —

aaderenemille / a:dɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I nearly complete; I attempt”

Frequentative —

aederenemille / ædɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I dabble”

Attenuative —

aiderenemille / aɪdɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I hone; I practice”

Intensive —

auderenemille / aʊdɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I over-do/over-achieve”

Evolutive —

aoderenemille / æʊdɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I go from attempting to over-achieving; I get better”

When used in the form of a verb, these forms take on the following meanings:

Moderative —

aterenemille / atɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I rest”

Approximative —

aaterenemille / a:tɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I pause”

Frequentative —

aeterenemille / ætɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I procrastinate”

Attenuative —

aiterenemille / aɪtɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I delay; I stall”

Intensive —

auterenemille / aʊtɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I sleep”

Evolutive —

aoterenemille / æʊtɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I go from taking a break to sleeping”

When used in the form of a verb, these forms take on the following meanings:

Moderative —

iterenemille / ɪtɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I end; I destroy/ruin; I complete”

Approximative —

iaterenemille / ɪatɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I impede/wound/injure/discourage; I slow; I assay (to end)”

Frequentative —

ieterenemille / ɪnɛtɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I make headway”

Attenuative —

iiterenemille / ɪ:tɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I complete (a small step in a larger series of tasks)”

Intensive —

iuterenemille / ɪʊtɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I overcome; I annihilate”

Evolutive —

ioterenemille / ɪʊtɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “I go from trying to overcoming; I go from impeding/discouraging to destroying/annihilating”

When used in the form of a verb, these forms take on the following meanings:

Moderative —

raderenenille / ɹadɛɾɛnɛnɪlle / — “It shines; It radiates”

Approximative —

raaderenenille / ɹa:dɛɾɛnɛnɪlle / — “It nearly shines; It glows”

Frequentative —

raederenenille / ɹædɛɾɛnɛnɪlle / — “It sparkles; It shimmers; It glitters”

Attenuative —

raiderenenille / ɹaɪdɛɾɛnɛnɪlle / — “It glimmers; It sparks”

Intensive —

rauderenenille / ɹaʊdɛɾɛnɛnɪlle / — “It glares; It burn/rages”

Evolutive —

raoderenenille / ɹæʊdɛɾɛnɛnɪlle / — “It grows brighter and brighter; It lightens”

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III.b-1E.) Primary & Secondary Root Derivation in Nouns

When used in the form of a noun, the primary and secondary nuclear derivations take on other, similar meanings:

Passive-Moderative —

radille / ɹadɪlle / — “That which shines/radiates; light”

Passive-Approximative —

raadille / ɹa:dɪlle / —

Passive-Frequentative —

raedille / ɹædɪlle / —

Passive-Attenuative —

raidille / ɹaɪdɪlle / —

Passive-Intensive —

raudille / ɹaʊdɪlle / —

Passive-Evolutive —

raodille — / ɹæʊdɪlle / —

Intransitive-Moderative —

redille / ɹɛdɪlle / —

Intransitive-Approximative —

readille / ɹɛadɪlle / —

Intransitive-Frequentative —

reedille / ɹɛ:dɪlle / —

Intransitive-Attenuative —

reidille / ɹɛɪdɪlle / —

Intransitive-Intensive —

reudille / ɹɛʊdɪlle / —

Intransitive-Evolutive —

reodille / ɹeʊdɪlle / —

Descriptive-Moderative —

ridille / ɹɪdɪlle / — “That which is away from the source: an outsider”

Descriptive-Approximative —

riadille / ɹɪadɪlle / — “That which moves around [such as in circles] or is elusive”

Descriptive-Frequentative —

riedille / ɹɪɛdɪlle / — “That which moves around [such as in circles]; that which is squirmy”

Descriptive-Attenuative —

riidille / ɹɪdɪlle / —

Descriptive-Intensive —

riudille / ɹɪʊdɪlle / —

Descriptive-Evolutive —

riodille / ɹiʊdɪlle / —

Transitive-Moderative —

rudille / ɹʊdɪlle / — “That which is red or hot”

Transitive-Approximative —

ruadille / ɹʊadɪlle / — “That which is warm or tepid”

Transitive-Frequentative —

ruedille / ɹʊɛdɪlle / —

Transitive-Attenuative —

ruidille / ɹʊɪdɪlle / —

Transitive-Intensive —

ruudille / ɹʊ:dɪlle / —

Transitive-Evolutive —

ruodille / ɹuʊdɪlle / —

Causative-Moderative —

rodille / ɹɔdɪlle / — “That which gnaws away at or eats at; that which is biting or corrosive”

Causative-Approximative —

roadille / ɹɔadɪlle / —

Causative-Frequentative —

rœdille / ɹɔɛddɪlle / — “That which gnaws or nibbles; a rodent” (rœdelle = “nibbler”)

Causative-Attenuative —

roidille / ɹɔɪdɪlle / —

Causative-Intensive —

roudille / ɹɔʊdɪlle / —

Causative-Evolutive —

roodille / ɹoʊdɪlle / —

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III.b-2.) Primary Lexical Derivations

Verbal —

raderene- / ɹadɛɾɛnɛmɪlle / — “Shine; radiate”

Nominal —

radille / ɹadɪlle / — “That which shines/radiates; light”

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III.b-3.) Nominal Vocality

Nouns have only five voices, a far simpler vocal paradigm than that of verbs. The BLANK voice typically indicates some sort of taxonym.

Receptive —

radalle / ɹadalle / — “That which is lit or brightened:”

Active —

radelle / ɹadɛlle / — “That which lights: a candle or lanthorn”

Descriptive —

radille / ɹadɪlle / — “That which is light / that which shines/radiates: a light”

Agentive —

radulle / ɹadʊlle / — “That which lights something[s]: a torch or splint”

Causative —

radolle / ɹadɔlle / — “That which causes [something[s]] to light: a flame”

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III.b-4.) Nominal Number

Singular —

radille / ɹadɪlle / — “A light (unmarked); One light”

Dual —

radialle / ɹadɪalle / — “Two lights”

Trial —

radielle / ɹadɪɛlle / — “Three lights”

Paucal —

radiille / ɹadɪ:lle / — “Some lights”

Plural —

radiulle / ɹadɪʊlle / — “Many lights”

Mass —

radiolle / ɹadiʊlle / — “Light (referring to the non-quantifiable substance)”

Null singular —

radilŋe / ɹadɪlɲ^je / — “No light; No one light; Not one light”

Null dual —

radialŋe / ɹadɪalɲ^je / — “No two lights”

Null trial —

radielŋe / ɹadɪlɲ^je / — “No three lights”

Null plural —

radiilŋe / ɹadɪ:lɲ^je / — “No lights”

Paucal by null —

radiulŋe / ɹadɪʊlɲ^je / — “Not many lights”

Null mass —

radiolŋe / ɹadiʊlɲ^je / — “No light” (referring to the lack of non-quantified substance)

---

III.b-5.) Nominal Derivations

Zero —

Radille / ɹadɪlle / — Light

Diminutive —

Radip[p]ille / ɹadɪpɪlle / — Little light; point of light

Augmentative —

Radimbille / ɹadɪmbɪlle / — Great light

Abilitative —

Radibhlhille / ɹadɪvjɪlle / — That which is able to be light; lightable

Negative —

Radiŋille / ɹadɪŋɪlle / — That which is without light; lightless

Double Negative —

Radiŋilŋe / ɹadɪŋɪlɲ^je / — That which is without lightlessness; without darkness (or used ironically to mean dark or lightless)

Pejorative —

Radilgille / ɹadɪlgɪlle / — Fucking light

Repletive —

Radissille / ɹadɪsɪlle / — That which is full of light; lightful

Reflective —

Radic[c]ille / ɹadɪkɪlle / — Light-like (that which is light-like)

Zero —

Radille / ɹadɪlle / — Light

-able —

Radabhlhille / ɹadavjɪlle / —

-ability —

Radabhlhilli / ɹadavjɪlli / —

-aria, -ary —

Radarilli / ɹadarɪlli / —

-er, -or —

Raderellu / ɹadɛrɛllu / —

-ress, -rix —

Raderella / ɹadɛrɛlla / —

-ria, ry, eria, ery —

Raderilli / ɹadɛrɪlli / —

-iance —

Radialli / ɹadɪalli / — Radiance —

-ient —

Radiilli / ɹadilli / —

-ible —

Radibhlhille / ɹadɪvjɪlle / —

-ibility —

Radibhlhilli / ɹadɪvjɪlli / —

-ical —

Radic[c]alle / ɹadɪkalle / —

-ican —

Radic[c]alle / ɹadɪkalle / —

-icality —

Radic[c]alli / ɹadɪkalli / —

-ic —

Radic[c]ille / ɹadɪkɪlle / —

-icity —

Radic[c]illi / ɹadɪkɪlli / —

-icator —

Radic[c]urollu / ɹadɪkʊrɔllu / —

-acatrix —

Radic[c]urolla / ɹadɪkʊrɔlla / —

-icon —

Radic[c]olle / ɹadɪikɔlle / —

-ator —

Radurollu / ɹadʊrɔllu / —

-atrix —

Radurolla / ɹadʊrɔlla / —

-atoria, atory —

Radurolli / ɹadʊrɔlli / —

-ocution —

Radoclhulli / ɹadɔkjʊlli / —

-er, -or —

Radullu / ɹadʊllu / —

-ress, -rix —

Radulla / ɹadʊlla / —

---

III.b-6.) Nominal Derivational Vocality

Abilitative —

Radibhlhalle — That which is enabled to be light

—

Radibhlhelle — That which enables itself to be light

—

Radibhlhille — That which is able to be light; lightable

—

Radibhlhulle — That which enables something[s] to be light

— Radibhlholle — That which causes [something[s]] to be light-able

Abilitative —

Radic[c]alle —

—

Radic[c]elle —

—

Radic[c]ille — Light-like (that which is light-like)

—

Radic[c]ulle — That which concerns light or radiance;

—

Radic[c]olle — That which relates [something[s]] to light; that which refers to light

(Describe also in verbs in section immediately following verbal vocality / adjectives and adverbs following attributive modality)

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III.b-7.) Nominal Derivations & Dual Numerality

Monosingular —

Radimbille — One of a great light

Bisingular —

Radimbialle — Two of a great light

Trisingular —

Radimbielle Three of a great light

Multisingular —

Radimbiille — A few of a great light

Polysingular —

Radimbiulle — Many of a great light

Omnisingular —

Radimbiolle — All of a great light

Monodual —

Radiambille — One of two great lights

Bidual —

Radiambialle — Two of two great lights

Tridual —

Radiambielle — Three of two great lights

Multidual —

Radiambiille — A few of two great lights

Polydual —

Radiambiulle — Many of two great lights

Omnidual —

Radiambiolle — All of two great lights

Monotrial —

Radiembille — One of three great lights

Bitrial —

Radiembialle — Two of three great lights

Tritrial —

Radiembielle — Three of three great lights

Multitrial —

Radiembiille — A few of three great lights

Polytrial —

Radiembiulle — Many of three great lights

Omnitrial —

Radiembiolle — All of three great lights

Monopaucal —

Radiimbille — One of a few great lights

Bipaucal —

Radiimbialle — Two of a few great lights

Tripaucal —

Radiimbielle — Three of a few great lights

Multipaucal —

Radiimbiille — A few of a few great lights

Polypaucal —

Radiimbiulle — Many of a few great lights

Omnipaucal —

Radiimbiolle — All of a few great lights

Monoplural —

Radiumbille — One of many great lights

Biplural —

Radiumbialle — Two of many great lights

Triplural —

Radiumbielle — Three of many great lights

Multiplural —

Radiumbiille — A few of many great lights

Polyplural —

Radiumbiulle — Many of many great lights

Omniplural —

Radiumbiolle — All of many great lights

Monomass —

Radiombille — A bit of the great light

Bimass —

Radiombialle — A fraction of the great light

Trimass —

Radiombielle — Some of the great light

Multimass —

Radiombiille — Much of the great light

Polymass —

Radiombiulle — Most of the great light

Omnimass —

Radiombiolle — All of the great light

---

III.b-8.) Case

The declination paradigm making up the case system of the Old Borean language is multi-tiered and complex. The language’s grammar divides them into two main categories: central declensions and peripheral declensions. These are further divided into seven distinct groups: primary central declensions, secondary central declensions, tertiary central declensions, quaternary central declensions, primary peripheral declensions, secondary peripheral declensions, and tertiary peripheral declensions.

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III.b-8A.) Central Declensions

S.

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III.b-8Aα.) Primary Central Declensions

Vocative —

Radilhe — Marks the addressee of a statement

Nominative —

Radille — Marks the subject of a verb

Objective —

Radinne — Marks the object of a verb

Subjunctive —

Radithe — Marks both the object of one clause and the subject of the next

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III.b-8Aβ.) Secondary Central Declensions

Relative —

Radilmhe — What/which light

Interrogative —

Radilcmhe — What/which light [?]

Demonstrative —

Generic —

Radillhe — The light

Proximal —

Radillhea — This light

Medial —

Radillheu — That light

Distal —

Radillheo — Yon light

Quantifying —

Exclusive

Radilclhe Some light

Inclusive —

Radilplhe — Any light

Universal —

Radilpghe — Every light

Negative —

Radilnhe — No light

---

III.b-8Aγ.) Tertiary Central Declensions

Articulate —

Proprietary —

Radille — Light (represented by the so-called “zero article”)

Indefinite —

Radille — A light (used for any grammatical number; marked by “zero article”)

Definite —

Radillhe — The light

Partitive —

Radiollei — Some/any light

—

Radiolleii — Some light / a bit of light

—

Radiolleiu — Much light / a lot of light

Hypothetical

Generic —

Radillee — The light / a light / some/any light

Proximal —

Radillea — This light

Medial —

Radilleu — That light

Distal —

Radilleo — Yon light

---

III.b-8Aδ.) Quaternary Central Declensions

Ergative —

Radilles[si] — Marks the agent of a transitive, passive, or causative verb

Absolutive —

Radille — Marks the experiencer of an intransitive verb (by being left unmarked)

—

Radillet[ti] — Marks the patient of a passive verb

Indirective —

Radinnet[ti] — Marks the indirect object of a ditransitive verb

Reciprocative —

Radillest[i] — Marks the experiencer or patient if it is also the agent

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III.b-8B.) Peripheral Declensions

S.

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III.b-8Bα.) Primary Peripheral Declensions: Postpositional Case

Ubiquitous —

Radinlhepao — All around the light

—?

Radinlhepei — At / in the direction of the light

Proximal —

Radinlhepi — At/near the light

Persuant —

Radinlhepu — Upon/near the light

Distributive —

Radinlhepmhei — Per / for each of the light

Sublative —

Radinlheptua — To [the destination of] the light

Terminal —

Radinlheptue — Unto [the location of] the light

Posterior —

Radinlhepsa — Behind/after the light

Anterior —

Radinlheprai — In front of / before the light

Desiderative —

Radinlhepro — For the light

Causal —

Radinlhebaa — Because of the light

Purposive —

Radinlhebao — For reason of the light

Benefactive —

Radinlhebu — For the light

Prosecutive —

Radinlhembheu — Through way of the light

Illative —

Radinlhemtu — Into the light

Inessive —

Radinlhemni — In / inside the light

Diapedetive —

Radinlhemzu — Through the light

Aversive —

Radinlhephobaa — For fear of the light

—

Radinlhephlha —

Invocative —

Radinlhebhai — In the name of the light

Surpassive —

Radinlhebhei — [Going] by the light

Prolative —

Radinlhebhia — By way of the light

Instructive —

Radinlhebhie By means of the light

Instrumental —

Radinlhebhuu — Using the light

Causal-final —

Radinlhebhobaa For want of the light

Associative —

Radinlhemhai — With the light

Comitative —

Radinlhemhei — Together/in company with the light

Dative —

Radinlhettu — To the light

Lative —

Radinlhetto — To/into the light

Equative —

Radinlhetsa — As the light

Co-temporal —

Radinlhetsi — At the time of the light; as [of] the light

Essive —

Radinlhetsu — As long as the light; to the point that the light ends

Genitive —

Radinlhedda — Of/from the light

Delative —

Radinlhedsai — Off of the light

Sociative —

Radinlhenmhai — Together/companioned with the light

Translative —

Radinlhethu — To/into [being] the light

—?

Radinlhedha — From [being] the light

Abessive —

Radinlhenhai — Lacking the light

Elative —

Radinlhesaa — Out of the light

Delative —

Radinlhesdaa — Issued from the light

Ablative —

Radinlhesha — Off of the light

Possessive —

Radinlheca — Of the light

Dedative —

Radinlhecai — Relating to the light

Topical —

Radinlhecao — In the matter of the light

Respective —

Radinlhecei — Regarding the light

Affective —

Radinlhecu — To [or from the perspective of] the light

—?

Radinlhecta — From the outside of the light

Exterior —

Radinlhecti — Without / outside of the light

Excessive —

Radinlhectu — To the outside of the light

Post-temporal —

Radinlhecraa — After/eft the light

Temporal —

Radinlhecrai — At the time of the light

Pro-temporal

Radinlhecrau — Before/ere the light

Initiative —

Radinlhecrao — At the beginning of, and causal to, the light

Terminative —

Radinlhertu — Until the light

Superessive —

Radinlhehai — On/upon the light

—

Radinlhehei — Over the light

Adessive —

Radinlhehii — Atop/on top of the light

Allative —

Radinlhehui — Onto the light

---

III.b-8Bβ.) Secondary Peripheral Declensions

These declensions are applied either to the noun or the pronominal suffix of the verb, depending on whether the conjunction applies to the individual[s], or whether the conjunction applies to the action[s]. There is no conjunctive agreement between the agent of a verb and the verb’s pronominal suffix. If a pronoun is used to refer to a verb’s agent, and a conjunction is needed, the pronoun cannot simply be dropped, as it would be in most other cases, as inflecting the verb’s pronominal suffix with a conjunctive suffix would indicate that the conjunction applied to the verb rather than the pronoun.

Conjunctive suffixes should only be used when conjoining two nouns having the same relationship to a verb (“Jack and Jill went up the hill...”), two verbs having the same relationship to a noun (“Jack went up the hill and fetched a pail of water”), or both (“Jack and Jill went up the hill and fetched a pail of water”). Conventions for conjoining what might otherwise be separate sentences (“Jack went up the hill, and Jill fetched a pail of water”) are similar to the conventions used in English and most other languages. More specifically, the conjunctions used for this purpose are not conjunctive inflections, or any kind of inflection at all, but independent words — just as they are in English. These non-inflective conjunctions are not discussed in this section in any depth, but see particular conjunctions for more details.

Correlating conjunctive suffixes

— Radillhendmhei — Both the light [and...]

— Radillheldlhei — Either the light [or...]

— Radillhelnhei — Neither the light [nor...]

— Radillhelcmhei — Whether the light [or...]

— Radillhelnhi — Not the light [but...]

Coordinating conjunctive suffixes

— Radillhentmhai — And the light

— Radillheltlhai — Or the light

— Radillhelnhai — Nor the light

— Radillhentlhai — But the light

A correlating conjunctive suffix must always be placed on a word preceding a word inflected with a coordinating conjunctive suffix. For example, the form Dzaecillu Dzilillantmhai, literally, “Jack and Jill”, is completely unacceptable, while the form Dzaecillundmhei Dzilillantmhai, literally, “both Jack and Jill”, is the proper construction. Whenever two words are conjoined, each word must be inflected with a conjunctive suffix. It is important to stress that this applies only to correlating conjunctive suffixes and coordinating conjunctive suffixes, and not to subordinating conjunctive suffixes or particular conjunctions.

The same rules that apply to correlating conjunctive suffixes and coordinating conjunctive suffixes also apply to subordinating conjunctive suffixes, except that [1] subordinating conjunctive suffixes can only be applied to the pronominal suffixes of verbs, and [2] subordinating conjunctive suffixes are only applied to a single word.

Subordinating conjunctive suffixes

? Temporal subordinating conjunctive suffixes

— Radelaanenilletsai — Eft it shone; after it shone

— Radelaanenilletsui — Ere it shone; before it shone

— Radelaanenilletsei — Whilst it shone; whenas it shone

— Radelaanenilletsii — As it shone; while it shone

— Radelaanenilletsaa — Sith it shone; since it shone

— Radelaanenilletsuu — Till it shone; until it shone

? Causal subordinating conjunctive suffixes

— Radelaanenilledlhia — Because it shone

— Radelaanenilledlhaa — Sithence it shone

— Radelaanenilletsmhaa — Now that it shone

— Radelaanenilletslhaa — As/because it shone

— Radelaanenillebhlhoa — In order that it shone

— Radelaanenillebhlhoi — So [that] it shone

? Oppositional subordinating conjunctive suffixes

— Radelaanenillenlha — Although it shone

— Radelaanenillenlhai — Though it shone

— Radelaanenillenlhae — Even though it shone

— Radelaanenillentlhai — Whereas it shone

— Radelaanenilletslhai — While it shone

? Conditional subordinating conjunctive suffixes

— Radelaanenillephai — An it shone / if it shone

— Radelaanenillenhphai — Unless it shone

— Radelaanenillectmhai — Whether or not it shone

— Radelaanenillephlhai — Even if it shone

— Radelaanenillencmhai — In case it shone

— Radelaanenillephobaa — Lest it shone; for fear that it shone

---

III.b-8Bγ.) Tertiary Peripheral Declensions

Aversive — Radinnephobaa — For fear of the light

Causal — Radinnebaa — Because of the light

Purposive — Radinnebao — For reason of the light

Benefactive — Radinnebu — For the light

---

III.b-9.) Verbal Vocality

Passive class —

True passive — Radarenemillet — I am enshone/brightened [by something]

Reciprocal — Radaarenemhiallest — We are enshone/brightened by one another

Middle — Radaerenemillet —

Mediopassive — Radairenemillet —

— Radaurenemillet —

Instrumental — Radaorenemillet —

Intransitive class

True intransitive — Raderenemille — I shine/radiate

Comitative — Radearenemille —

— Radeerenemille —

— Radeirenemille —

Locative — Radeurenemille — I shine [on/onto/upon/at/&c] [something]

Benefactive — Radeorenemille — I shine [for something]

Stative class

True stative — Radirenemille — I am bright/radical/radiating/splendorous

— Radiarenemille —

— Radierenemille —

— Radiirenemille —

— Radiurenemille —

— Radiorenemille —

Transitive class

Monotransitive — Radurenemilles — I enshine/bright [something]

Reflexive — Raduarenemilles — I enshine/bright myself

Trans-Reciprocal — Raduerenemhiallest — We both enshine/bright [one another]

— Raduirenemilles —

Ditransitive — Raduurenemilles — I enshine/bright [something] [to] [something]

Dibenefactive — Raduorenemilles — I enshine/brighten [something] [for] [something]

Causative class

True causative — Radorenemilles — I cause [something] to shine/radiate; I brighten or enlighten [something]

Respective — Radoarenemilles — I shine/radiate [about] [something]

Causal-Reciprocal — Radœrenemhiallest — We both enshine/brighten [one another]

Causal — Radoirenemilles — I cause [something] to be bright/radical/radiating/splendorous

Dicausative — Radourenemilles — I light [something] [to] [something]

— Radoorenemilles —

Note that verbs rendered in voices belonging to the stative class — called stative verbs — indicate predicative adjectives by default. Attributive adjectives are indicated only by specific morphological alteration. For more information, see the section on attributive modality.

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III.b-10.) Tense

Just as the concept of “tenses” the English language conflates time with aspect, tense in the Proto-Borean language represents a complex interaction between tensile aspect, modality, time, BLANK aspect, telicity, and predicative aspect.

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III.b-10A.) Tensile Aspect

Simple — Raderenemille — I learn/evolve

Emphatic — Reneraderenemille — I do learn/evolve

Perfect — Reneraderanemille — I have learnt/evolved

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III.b-10B.) Modality

Modality in the Proto-Faerish language.

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III.b-10Bα.) Narrative Modality

Indicative — Radelenetille — Thou shinest

Energetic — Radelehetille — Thou dost shine; thou certainly shinest

Declarative — Radelebhetille — Thou shinest!

Capacitative — Radelechetille — Thou canst shine

— Radeledretille — Thou darest shine

Requisitive — Radeleldetille — Thou needest shine

Negative — Radelenhetille — Thou shinest not

Oppositional — Radeledetille — Thou de-shinest; thou darkenest

Subjunctive Radelmhenetithe That thou [wouldst/shouldst/might] shine

Remotive Subjunctive — Radelmheunetille[phai] — [If] thou shone

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III.b-10Bβ.) Alethic & Non-alethic Modality

Alethic Narrative — Radelenetille — Thou shinest

Non-Alethic Narrative — Radelenlhetille — Thou shinest [because I refuse to believe otherwise]

---

III.b-10Bγ.) Speculative Modality

Hypothetical — Radelemlhetille — Thou might/may be shining

Presumptive — Radelemmhetille — Thou might shine

Tentative — Radelemhetille — Thou wouldst shine

Tentative Eventive — Lecgheradelemhetille — Thou wouldst likely/probably shine

Potential — Radelechmhetille — Thou couldst shine

Potential Eventive — Lecgheradelechmhetille — Thou couldst probably/likely shine

Conditional — Radeleshmhetille — Thou shouldst [in that case] shine

---

III.b-10Bδ.) Epistemic Modality

S.

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III.b-10Bδ-α.) Summative Epistemic Modality

Dubitative — Radelegnhetille — It is doubtful / not confirmed/proven that thou shinest

Probabilitative — Radelecchetille — Thou dost possibly shine

Superprobabilitative — Radelecghetille — Thou probably dost shine

Hyperprobabilitative — Radelegghetille — Thou must shine (likelihood)

Obligative — Radeleshlhetille — Thou shouldst/ought to shine (expectation)

Reputative — Radeleldlhetille — Thou art supposed to shine; thou shinest [by reputation]

Approximative — Radelenlhetille — Thou seemest to shine

Deductive — Radelelclhetille — Thou must [therefore] shine (not a directive)

---

III.b-10Bδ-β.) Relative Epistemic Modality

Sarcastic — Radeleghetille — Thou shinest [not] (spoken sardonically)

Facetious — Radelemlhetille — Thou might shine (spoken playfully/teasingly)

Infelicitous — Radelemdlhetille — I hear that thou shinest [and would like to know if this is true]

Felicitous — Radelendlhetille — It is said [by a reputable source] that thou shinest

Inferential — Radelendhlhetille — It is inferred [by some/someone] that thou shinest

Admirative — Radelemghetille — Surprisingly [or to my surprise], thou shinest

Confirmative — Radelegnetille — It is confirmed/proven that thou dost definitely shine

---

III.b-10Bε.) Sensory-Evidental Modality

Aural Sensory — Radeledlhetille — I hear that thou shinest

Cognitive Sensory — Radelegnlhetille — I figure that thou shinest

Extrasensory — Radelepslhetille — I divine that thou shinest

Generic Sensory — Radelemtlhetille — I sense that thou shinest

Gnostic Sensory — Radelegnlhetille — I know that thou shinest

Instinctive Sensory — Radelemnlhetille — I feel in my gut that thou shinest

Olfactory Sensory — Radelestlhetille — I smell that thou shinest

Savory Sensory — Radelesplhetille — I taste that thou shinest

Tactile Sensory — Radelemplhetille — I feel that thou shinest

Visual Sensory — Radelebhslhetille — I see that thou shinest

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III.b-10Bζ.) Deontic Modality

S.

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III.b-10Bζ-α.) Volitive Deontic Modality

Desiderative — Radelembmhetille — Thou might shine (a hope or wish)

Desiderative subj. — Radelmhembmhetille — Thou wouldst shine (a hope or wish)

Imprecative — Radelembmhetille — Thou might shine (a curse or hex)

Imprecative subj. — Radelmhembmhetille — Thou wouldst shine (a curse or hex)

Commissive — Radeleshetille — Thou shalt shine (declaration; promise; guarantee)

Hortative — Radeletslhemille — Let me shine

Cohortative — Radeletslhemhialle — Let’s/let us shine

Jussive — Radeletslhetille — Let thyself shine

Optative — Radeletslhenille — Let it shine

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III.b-10Bζ-β.) Directive Deontic Modality

Permissive — Radelumblhetille — Thou mayest shine

Prohibitive — Lenheradelumblhetille — Thou mayest not shine

Suggestive — Radelmhunmhetille — Thou ought to shine

Injunctive — Radelunshetille —

Necessitative — Radelunshetille — Thou shalt shine (demand)

Imperative — Radelulhetilhe — Shine, thou

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III.b-10Bη.) Interrogative Modality

Informal inquisitive — Radelecmhetille? — Thou shinest?

Formal inquisitive — Lecmheradelenetille? — Dost thou shine?

Precative — Lecmheradelemhetille? — Wouldst thou shine?

Deliberative — Lecmheradelenmhetille? — Ought thou shine?

Ejaculative — Lecmheradeleshmhemhialle? — Shall we shine?

Conjunctive — Radelumhetille — Thou shalt shine (request)

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III.b-10Bθ.) Attributive Modality

Adjectival — Radiliniradille — Bright light

Adverbial — Radiliniradelenetille — Thou shinest brightly

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III.b-10C.) Time

The Proto-Boreans had a similar conception of time to that of the Aymara: they conceived of the past as being before them and the future as being behind them. Speakers of the Aymara language will even gesture in front of them to indicate the past (pacha nayra) and gesture behind them to indicate the future (pacha qhipa). This is sensible considering we can see the past but not the future. Additionally, the past seems to grow larger as we move through time, as though we were moving toward a destination the past. In order for the Standard European conception of time to work, with humans constantly moving toward the future, we would essentially have to be walking backward through time, with our backs to the future and our eyes to the past, allowing us to see more of the past as we move away from it. Either way, the European view of the past being somehow "behind" us and the future lying "before" us is exceedingly difficult to rationalize compared to the much more logical Proto-Borean and Aymara concepts of time.

Immediate Past — Radelanenille — Just now it shone/radiated

Hodiernal Past — Radelaanenille — Earlier it shone/radiated

Recent Past — Radelaenenille — Recently it shone/radiated

Pre-hodiernal — Radelainenille — Before today it shone/radiated

Remote Past — Radelaunenille — A while ago it shone/radiated

Distant Past — Radelaonenille — Back in the day, it shone/radiated

Non-future — Radelinenille — It hither (until now) shone/radiated

Remissive — Radelianenille — Since then [has] it shone/radiated

— Radelienenille —

— Radeliinenille —

Residual — Radeliunenille — It still shines/radiates

— Radelionemille —

Present — Radelenenille — It shines/radiates

— Radeleanenille —

— Radeleenenille —

— Radeleinenille —

Remotive — Radeleunenille — [If; had; et cetera] it shone/radiated

Immediate Future — Radeleonenille —

Non-past — Radelunenille — It shines/radiates [as of this moment]

Projective — Radeluanenille — Until then it will shine/radiate

— Radeluenenille —

— Radeluinenille —

— Radeluunenille —

— Radeluonenille —

Immediate Future — Radelonenille — Now it will shine/radiate

Hodiernal Future — Radeloanenille — Later it will shine/radiate

Near Future — Radelœnemille — Soon/shortly it will shine/radiate

Post-hodiernal — Radeloinenille — After today it will shine/radiate

Remote Future — Radelounenille — One of these days it will shine/radiate

Distant Future — Radeloonenille — Someday it will shine/radiate

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III.b-10D.) Perfectivity

Perfective — Radelenemille —

Imperfective — Radessenemille —

Positive — Radelenemille —

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III.b-10E.) Telicity

Atelic — Radelenenille — It shines/radiates

Progressive — Radelrhenenille — It is shining/radiating

Telic — Radelhhenenille — It shines brightly

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III.b-10F.) Predicative Aspect

Momentane — Radelenamille — I flash (sometimes known as the punctual predicative aspect)

Semelfactive — Radelenaamille — I flash many times all at once; I flash many times “all in one swoop”

Simulfactive — Radelenaamhiallea — We both flash at once; we both flash simultaneously

Iterative — Radelenaemille — I shine/radiate/flash over and over again

Repetitive — Radelenaimille — I repeatedly shine/radiate/flash; I strobe

Experiential — Leneradelaunau- — [I] have shone/radiated before (dœs not work well in simple present)

Habitual — Radelenaomille — I often shine/radiate; I am used to shining/radiating

Usitative — Radelanaomille — I used to shine/radiate (past tense of the habitual predicative aspect)

Indicative — Radelenemille — I shine/radiate [currently; at this general point in time]

Conative — Radeleneamille — I try/attempt to shine/radiate

Contrastive — Radeleneemille — I shine/radiate more brightly

Alternative [1] — Radeleneimhialle — We shine one after another

Alternative [2] — Radeleneimille — I shine/radiate [and [another verb]] in succession

Distributive — Raduleneimille — I shine upon/lighten [some things] one by one (affects the plural noun)

Perdurative — Radeleneumille — I shine/radiate for an unusually long duration

Terminative — Radeleneomille — I finish shining/radiating; I completely and wholly/totally radiate/shine

Incompletive — Lenheradeleneo- — [I] partially / incompletely radiate/shine; I do not finish shining/radiating

Adjective — Radelenimille — I am shining/radiating (does not imply progressive tensile aspect)

Apparentive — Radeleniamille — I appear to shine; I look shiny

Comparative — Radeleniemille — I am shinier/more radiant

Generic — Radeleniimille — I shine/radiate/standout; I am radiant/radical/tenacious/brilliant/bright

Superlative — Radeleniumille — I am shiniest/brightest/most radiant

Inchoative — Radeleniomille — I become shiny/radiant/radical/brilliant/bright

Durative — Radelenumille — I shine/radiate for a time; I shine/radiate for [some span of time]

Delimitative — Radelenuamille — I shine/radiate for a bit; I shine/radiate for a little while

Pausative — Lenuaradelenhe- — [I], for a little while, do not shine/radiate

Continuative — Radelenuemille — I keep shining/radiating; I continue to shine/radiate

Cessative — Lenheradelenue- — [I] do not keep shining/radiating; I cease shining/radiating

Perfective — Radelenuimille — I shine/radiate as/in synchronization with [event/occurrence + aspect]

Protractive — Radelenuumille — I shine/radiate for an indefinitely long duration, possibly forever

Superfective — Radelenuomille — I keep shining/radiating far after/further than the time/place to cease

Inceptive — Radelenomille — I begin/start to shine/radiate

Recessive — Lenoradelenhe- — [I] begin/start to not shine/radiate; I cease/stop shining/radiating

Prospective — Radelenoamille — I am fixin’ to shine/radiate; I am going to radiate/shine

Utilitative — Radelenœmille — I shine/radiate so there will be light for myself or others

Intentional — Radelenoimille — I intentionally shine/radiate; I shine/radiate for a reason

Accidental — Lenheradelenoi- — [I] accidentally shine/radiate [and call unwanted attention to myself?]

Resumptive — Radelenoumille — I resume shining/radiating; I keep shining/radiating

Excessive — Radelenoomille — I excessively shine/radiate; I shine/radiate too brightly

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III.c. Particular Conjunctions

S.

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III.d. Adverbial Subordinates

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IV. Morphosyntactic Alignment

Passive — Luctinlhessibaalnhei dhinlhessibaalnhai leneradalanemille

Intransitive — Minnussibaa radelanenille luctille

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V. Semantics

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V.a. Predicative Logic

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VI. Vocabulary

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VI.a. Common Phrases

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VI.b. Lexicon

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